Völundarkviða: An Old Norse Poem of Blood and Vengeance

[Lokasenna]

Well, time for another Old Norse poem in translation!

Völundarkviða ('the poem of Völundr'), like my previously posted Þrymskviða, exists only in one extant manuscript - the Codex Regius, which was put together sometime in the 1270s. This poem is likely to be substantially older than that: it is in particularly battered condition, some of the strange jumps in time suggestive of lost stanzas and with numerous damaged lines. The compiler of the manuscript has worked some prose explanatory notes into the poem, and these are rather cack-handed: it is apparent that he has misunderstood certain elements of the poem.

Unlike the broad comedy of my previous poem, this poem is dark and macabre with beautiful and evocative images being mixed with scenes of intense and sadistic violence. It is a working of the popular myth of Völundr the Smith (or Weyland as he is known in the Old English tradition); this myth is described or alluded to in a great many medieval texts, clearly having been very popular and deeply entrenched in the medieval imagination. The Völundarkviða poet makes a number of changes to the story, and plays on certain details in such a way as to make this one of the most complex and aesthetically pleasing iterations of that legend.

To summarise the story briefly, Völundr and his two brothers are elves of high social standing who one day encounter three valkyries (quasi-supernatural warrior maidens who oversee battles) and marry them. After several years, the valkyries abandon their husbands: Völundr's brothers set off in a desperate quest to find them, but Völundr himself, who is a supernaturally skilled artisan and craftsman, remains home alone manufacturing valuable treasures in the hope that it will lure his wife back home. Instead, this treasure attracts the attention of King Níðuðr who dispatches his warriors to seize both Völundr and the treasure. On the instigation of his awful queen, Níðuðr orders Völundr to be hamstrung to render him harmless, and he is imprisoned in a smithy where he must continue to manufacture valuables for the royal family. As a consequence, Völundr plots an elaborate revenge: he first kills Níðuðr's young sons by tempting them with gold rings, and from their body parts makes jewels which he sends to the family. He then forms a strange relationship with Níðuðr's daughter, Böðvildr, who wears a ring that Völundr intended for his wife and thus in some strange sense he comes to see the princess as his replacement wife: ultimately he rapes her, as a consequence of which she becomes pregnant. Völundr finally unveils his greatest creation, a set of mechanical wings, which he uses to escape after having first taunted the royal family with his actions. The final image of the poem is that of the grieving king having a difficult and emotionally wretched conversation with the daughter that is now carrying the child of his enemy.

Like last time, I shall post a running commentary of each stanza - but if you have any questions, I will do my best to answer them.

[Lokasenna]

Níðuðr hét konungr í Svíþjóð. Hann átti tvá sonu ok eina dóttur; hon hét Böðvildr. Brœðr váru þrír, synir Finnakonungs. Hét einn Slagfiðr, annarr Egill, þriði Völundr. Þeir skriðu ok veiddu dýr. Þeir kvámu í Úlfdali ok gerðu sér þar hús. Þar er vatn er heitir Úlfsjár. Snemma of morgin fundu þeir á vatnsströndu konur þrjár, ok spunnu lín. Þar váru hjá þeim álptarhamir þeira. Þat váru valkyrjur. Þar váru tvær dætr Hlöðvés konungs, Hlaðguðr svanhvít ok Hervör alvitr. En þriðja var Ölrún Kjárs dóttir af Vallandi. Þeir höfðu þær heim til skála með sér. Fekk Egill Ölrúnar, en Slagfiðr Svanhvítrar, en Völundr Alvitrar. Þau bjuggu sjau vetr. Þá flugu þær at vitja víga ok kvámu eigi aptr. Þá skreið Egill at leita Ölrúnar, en Slagfiðr leitaði Svanhvítrar, en Völundr sat í Úlfdölum. Hann var hagastr maðr, svá at menn viti, í fornum sögum. Níðuðr konungr lét hann höndum taka, svá sem hér er um kveðit:

The king of Sweden was called Níðuðr. He had two sons and one daughter: she was called Böðvildr. There were three brothers, sons of the king of the Lapps. One was called Slagfiðr, the second Egill, the third Völundr. They travelled on skis and hunted game. They came to Úlfdalir [Wolf-dale] and made themselves a house there. There is a lake there which is called Úlfsjár [Wolf-lake]. Early one morning they found by the lakeside three maidens, spinning linen. Near them were their swan-shapes. They were valkyries. Two of them were the daughters of King Hlöðvér: Hlaðguðr Swan-white and Hervör All-wise. And the third was Ölrún, daughter of Kjár from France. They took the women home with them. Egill had Ölrun, and Slagfiðr had Swan-white, and Völundar had All-wise. They dwelt there seven winters. Then they flew off to attend battles and did not come back. Then Egill went skiing to look for Ölrún, and Slagfiðr went looking for Swan-white, but Völundr stayed in Úlfdalir. He was the most skilful man know to men in old stories. King Níðuðr had him bound, as it is told here:

Fra Völundi ok Níðaði:

Concerning Völundr and Níðuðr:

1. Meyjar flugu sunnan,
myrkvið í gögnum,
Alvitr unga,
ørlög drýgja;
þær á sævar strönd
settusk at hvílask
drósir suðrœnar,
dýrt lín spunnu.

1. Maidens flew from the south through the murky wood,
All-wise the young, to deal in war;
there by the lake shore they settled to rest,
those southern ladies spun splendid linen.

2. Ein nam þeira
Egil at verja,
fögr mær fira,
faðmi ljósum;
önnur var Svanhvít,
svanfjaðrar dró,
en in þriðja
þeira systir
varði hvítan
háls Völundar.

2. One of them embraced Egill,
fair maid among men in her bright embrace;
second was Swan-white, wearing swan feathers,
and the third of those sisters
embraced Völundar's white neck.

3. Sátu síðan
sjau vetr at þat,
en inn átta
allan þráðu,
en inn níunda
nauðr of skilði;
meyjar fýstusk
á myrkvan við,
Alvitr unga,
ørlög drýgja.

3. They stayed there seven winters afterwards,
but all the eighth they yearned to leave,
and during the ninth they departed of necessity;
the maidens needed to go through the murky wood,
All-wise the young, to deal in war.

4. Kom þar af veiði
veðreygr skyti;
Slagfiðr ok Egill
sali fundu auða;
gengu út ok inn
ok um sásk.
Austr skreið Egill
at Ölrúnu,
en suðr Slagfiðr
at Svanhvítu.

4. There came from the hunt the weather-eyed hunter;
Slagfiðr and Egill found the hall empty,
they went in and out, and looked all around.
Egill skied east to find Ölrún,
and Slagfíðr south for Swan-white.

5. En einn Völundr
sat í Úlfdölum;
hann sló gull rautt
við gimfastan,
lukði hann alla
lindbauga vel;
svá beið hann
sinnar ljóssar
kvánar, ef hánum
koma gerði.

5. But Völundr alone stayed in Úlfdalir;
he beat red gold upon an anvil,
he skilfully closed up the serpentine arm-rings;
thus he awaited his shining
wife, for her to come back.

6. Þat spyrr Níðuðr,
Níara dróttinn,
at einn Völundr
sat í Ulfdölum;
nóttum fóru seggir,
negldar váru brynjur,
skildir bliku þeira
við inn skarða mána.

6. Níðuðr, lord of the Níarar, found it out,
that Völundr alone stayed in Úlfdalir;
warriors journeyed by night, their corselets were riveted,
their shields shone by the waning moon.

7. Stigu ór söðlum
at salar gafli,
gengu inn þaðan
endlangan sal;
sá þeir á bast
bauga dregna,
sjau hundruð allra,
er sá seggr átti.

7. They stepped down out of saddles by the hall's gable-wall,
they walked in through the whole length of the hall;
they saw there a bast-rope threaded with arm-rings,
seven hundred in total, which that warrior owned.

8. Ok þeir af tóku
ok þeir á létu,
fyr einn útan,
er þeir af létu.

8. And they took them off, and put them back on,
all except one, which they left off.

9. Kom þar af veiði
veðreygr skyti,
Völundr, líðandi
um langan veg.
Gekk brúnni
beru hold steikja;
hár brann hrísi,
allþurr fura,
viðr inn vindþurri,
fyr Völundi.

9. There came from the hunt the weather-eyed hunter,
Völundr, travelling a long way.
He went to roast the flesh of a brown she-bear;
brushwood burned high, very dry pine,
the wind-dried wood before Völundr.

10. Sat á berfjalli,
bauga talði,
alfa ljóði,
eins saknaði;
hugði hann at hefði
Hlöðvés dóttir,
Alvitr unga,
væri hon aftr komin.

10. He sat on a bear skin, counted the arm-rings,
prince of the elves, he found one missing;
he thought that Hlöðvér's daughter had it,
All-wise the young, she had come back.

11. Sat hann svá lengi,
at hann sofnaði,
ok hann vaknaði
vilja lauss;
vissi sér á höndum
höfgar nauðir,
en á fótum
fjötur of spenntan.

11. He sat so long that he fell asleep,
and he awoke deprived of joy;
he perceived on his arms heavy bonds,
and on his legs strong fetters.

12. 'Hverir ro jöfrar,
þeir er á lögðu
besti bör síma
ok mik bundu?'

12. 'Who are those warriors who have laid
bast rope on me and bound me up?'

13. Kallaði nú Níðuðr
Níara dróttinn:
'Hvar gaztu, Völundr,
vísi alfa,
vára aura
í Ulfdölum?'

13. Now Níðuðr spoke, lord of the Níarar:
'Where did you get, Völundr, leader of the elves,
our gold from in Úlfdalir?'

14. 'Gull var þar eigi
á Grana leiðu,
fjarri hugða ek várt land
fjöllum Rínar;
man ek at vér meiri
mæti áttum,
er vér heil hjú
heima várum.

14. 'There was no gold on Grani's path,
I thought our land distant from the mountains of the Rhine;
I thought that we had more treasure
when we were a whole household at home.'

15. 'Hlaðguðr ok Hervör
borin var Hlöðvé
kunn var Ölrún
Kíars dóttir.'

15. 'Hlaðguðr and Hervör were born to Hlöðvér,
Ölrún, Kíar's daughter, was renowned.'

16. Hon inn um gekk
endlangan sal,
stóð á gólfi,
stillti röddu:
'Era sá nú hýrr,
er ór holti ferr.'

16. She walked in along the whole length of the hall,
stood on the unboarded floor with moderate voice:
'He is not now very friendly, the one who came out of the forest.'

Níðuðr konungr gaf dóttur sinni Böðvildi gullhring þann er hann tók af bastinu at Völundar. En hann sjálfr bar sverðit, er Völundr átti. En dróttning kvað:

King Níðuðr gave his daughter Böðvildr that gold-ring which he took from the bast-rope in Völundr's house. And he himself wore the sword, which Völundr owned. And the queen said:

17. 'Tenn hánum teygjask,
er hánum er tét sverð
ok hann Böðvildar
baug um þekkir;
ámun éru augu
ormi þeim enum frána;
sníðið ér hann
sina magni
ok setið hann síðan
í sævar stöð.'

17. 'His teeth are bared when the sword is shown to him,
and when he recognizes Böðvildr's arm-ring;
his eyes are like those of the glittering serpent;
cut from him the strength of his sinews,
and afterwards put him by the sea-side.'

Svá var gört, at skornar váru sinar í knésfótum, ok settr í hólm einn er þar var fyrir landi, er hét Sævarstaðr. Þar smíðaði hann konungi alls kyns gørsimar. Engi maðr þorði at fara til hans nema konungr einn.

Thus it was done, that the sinews in his knees were cut, and he was set up on an island near that place which is called Sævarstaðr. There he smithed all kinds of treasures for the king. No person dared to go to him, except the king.

18. 'Skínn Níðaði
sverð á linda,
þat er ek hvesta,
sem ek hagast kunna
ok ek herðak
sem mér hœgst þótti:
sá er mér fránn mækir,
æ fjarri borinn;
sékka ek þann Völundi
til smiðju borinn.
Nú berr Böðvildr
brúðar minnar
- bíðka ek þess bót, -
bauga rauða.'

18. 'A sword shines from the belt on Níðuðr,
that which I sharpened as skilfully as I knew how,
and I tempered as seemed most suitable to me:
that sharp sword is borne far from me forever;
I won't see it borne to Völundr in the smithy.
Now Böðvildr carries - I expect no recompense for this -
my wife's red-gold arm-rings.'

19. Sat hann, né hann svaf, ávalt
ok hann sló hamri;
vél gørði hann heldr
hvatt Níðaði.
Drifu ungir tveir
á dýr sjá
synir Níðaðar,
í sævar stöð.

19. He sat, he did not sleep, constantly he struck the hammer;
he made trinkets for Níðuðr rather quickly.
Two young boys hurried to see precious treasures,
sons of Níðuðr, by the sea-side.

20. Kómu þeir til kistu,
kröfðu lukla,
opin var illúð
er þeir í sáu;
fjölð var þar menja,
er þeim mögum sýndisk
at væri gull rautt
ok gørsimar.

20. They came to the chest, demanded keys,
evil intent was apparent when they looked inside;
there was a multitude of necklaces, it seemed to the boys
that there was red gold and valuable treasures.

21. 'Komið einir tveir,
komið annars dags!
Ykkr læt ek þat gull
um gefit verða.
Segiða meyjum
né salþjóðum,
manni øngum,
at it mik fyndið.'

21. 'Come again you two, come another day!
I shall cause that gold to be given to you.
Don't tell the girls or the household servants,
nor anyone, that you meet with me.'

22. Snemma kallaði
seggr á annan,
bróðir á bróður:
'Göngum baug sjá!'

22. Soon one man said to the other,
brother to brother: 'We should go see the arm-rings!'

23. Kómu til kistu,
kröfðu lukla,
opin var illúð,
er þeir í litu.
Sneið af höfuð
húna þeira
ok undir fen fjöturs
fœtr um lagði;
en þær skálar,
er und skörum váru,
sveip hann útan silfri,
seldi Níðaði.

23. They came to the chest, demanded keys,
evil intent was apparent when looked in.
He cut the heads off those cubs,
and laid their feet in the water below the forge;
but those bowls that are under the hair
he covered all outside in silver, sent to Níðuðr.

24. En ór augum
jarknasteina
sendi hann kunnigri
konu Níðaðar;
en ór tönnum
tveggja þeira
sló hann brjóstkringlur,
sendi Böðvildi.

24. From their eyes gemstones,
sent to the cunning wife of Níðuðr;
from the teeth of the two of them
he forged a breast-brooch, sent to Böðvildr.

25. Þá nam Böðvildr
baugi at hrósa,
er brotit hafði:
'Þoriga ek at segja
nema þér einum.'

25. Then Böðvildr began to praise the ring
which she had shattered:
'I dare not talk of this, except to you alone.'

26. 'Ek bœti svá
brest á gulli,
at feðr þínum
fegri þykkir,
ok mœðr þinni
miklu betri
ok sjalfri þér
at sama hófi.'

26. 'I'll beat out the rift in the gold so that
it seems more fair to you father,
and to your mother greatly better,
and to yourself the same as before.'

27. Bar hann hana bjóri,
því at hann betr kunni,
svá at hon í sessi
um sofnaði.
'Nú hefi ek hefnt
harma minna,
allra nema einna
íviðgjarnra.'

27. He overcame her with beer, because he knew better,
so that she fell asleep in a seat.
'Now I have avenged all my wrongs,
all except the most malicious.'

28. 'Vel ek,' kvað Völundr,
'verða ek á fitjum
þeim er mik Níðaðar
námu rekkar.'
Hlæjandi Völundr
hófsk at lopti.
Grátandi Böðvildr
gekk ór eyju,
tregði för friðils
ok föður reiði.

28. 'I would be good,' said Völundr, 'if I could stand on upward-rising feet,
of which I was deprived by Níðuðr's warriors.'
Laughing, Völundr raised himself into the air.
Weeping, Böðvildr went from the island,
grieving for her lover's departure and her father's anger.

29. Úti stendr kunnig
kván Níðaðar,
ok hon inn um gekk
endlangan sal;
en hann á salgarð
settisk at hvílask:
'Vakir þú, Níðuðr
Níara dróttinn?'

29. The cunning wife of Níðuðr was standing outside,
and she walked the whole length of the hall;
but he settled to rest on the hall's wall:
'Are you awake, Níðuðr, lord of the Níarar?'

30. 'Vaki ek ávallt,
vilja lauss,
sofna ek minnst
sízt mína sonu dauða;
kell mik í höfuð,
köld eru mér ráð þín,
vilnumk ek þess nú,
at ek við Völund dœma.

30. 'I am always awake, deprived of joy,
I sleep very little since my sons dies:
my head is cold, your counsel is cold to me,
I wish it now that I converse with Völundr.'

31. 'Seg þú mér þat, Völundr,
vísi alfa,
af heilum hvat varð
húnum mínum.'

31. 'Tell me now, Völundr, leader of the elves,
what happened to my healthy young cubs.'

32. 'Eiða skaltu mér áðr
alla vinna,
at skips borði
ok at skjaldar rönd,
at mars bœgi
ok at mækis egg,
at þú kveljat
kván Völundar,
né brúði minni
at bana verðir,
þótt vér kván eigim,
þá er þér kunnið,
eða jóð eigim
innan hallar.

32. 'First you must swear to me all-encompassing oaths,
by a ship's boards and a shield's edge,
by a stallion's withers and a sword's edge,
that you will not torment Völundr's wife,
not that you will bring death to my bride,
though the woman I marry is known to you
and we have a child in the hall.'

33. 'Gakk þú til smiðju,
þeirar er þú gørðir,
þar fiðr þú belgi
blóði stokkna.
Sneið ek af höfuð
húna þinna,
ok undir fen fjöturs
fœtr um lagðak.

33. 'Go to the smithy that you built:
there you will find bellows spattered with blood.
I cut the heads off your young cubs,
and laid their feet in the water below the forge.'

34. 'En þær skálar,
er und skörum váru,
sveip ek útan silfri,
senda ek Níðaði;
en ór augum
jarknasteina
senda ek kunnigri
kván Níðaðar.

34. 'And their bowls, which are under the hair,
I covered over in silver, I sent them to Níðuðr;
but the gemstones from their eyes
I sent to the cunning wife of Níðuðr.'

35. 'En ór tönnum
tveggja þeira
sló ek brjóstkringlur,
senda ek Böðvildi;
nú gengr Böðvildr
barni aukin,
eingadóttir
ykkur beggja.'

35. 'And from the teeth of those two
I made a breast-brooch, I sent it to Böðvildr;
now Böðvildr goes great with child,
the only daughter of you both.'

36. 'Mæltira þú þat mál,
er mik meirr tregi,
né ek þik vilja, Völundr,
verr um níta;
erat svá maðr hár,
at þik af hesti taki,
né svá öflugr,
at þik neðan skjóti,
þar er þú skollir
við ský uppi.'

36. 'Nothing you could have said would have caused me more pain,
nor could I wish, Völundr, any worse on you;
no man is so tall that he might, from a horse, take you,
nor so mighty as to shoot you from below
there where you hover up by the clouds.'

37. Hlæjandi Völundr
hófsk at lopti,
en ókátr Níðuðr
sat þá eptir.

37. Laughing, Völundr raised himself into the air,
and grieving Níðuðr was left behind.

38. 'Upp rístu, Þakkráðr,
þræll minn inn bezti,
bið þú Böðvildi,
meyna bráhvítu,
ganga fagrvarið
við föður ræða.'

38. 'Get up, Þakkráðr, my best slave,
tell Böðvildr, the maiden with beautiful eyelashes,
to come beautifully dressed to talk with her father.'

39. 'Er þat satt, Böðvildr,
er sögðu mér:
sátuð it Völundr
saman í holmi?'

39. 'Is it true, Böðvildr, what was said to me:
did you stay with Völundr on the island?'

40. 'Satt er þat, Níðaðr,
er sagði þér:
sátu vit Völundr
saman í hólmi
eina ögurstund
- æva skyldi!
Ek vætr hánum
vinna kunnak,
ek vætr hánum
vinna máttak.'

40. 'It is true, Níðuðr, what you were told:
Völundr and I stayed together on the island
a single turning of the tide - it should not have happened!
I did not know to resist him,
I did not have strength to resist him.'

[Lokasenna]

Here we go! A stanza-by-stanza commentary, not particularly deep but hopefully helpful to those unfamiliar with ON poetry:

1. The phrase meaning 'to deal in war' is ambiguous, and can just as easily be translated as 'to suffer fate' - which entirely changes the meaning of the stanzas. As valkyries, these women are goddesses of death who preside battle and choose the slain - but as human women, they are also subject themselves to inexorable fate.

2. This stanza suggests that the valkyries commence the sexual relationship - this is an important detail. In some variant versions of the myth, they are essentially taken prisoner and raped.

3. The valkyries, despite being arbiters of fate, are themselves subject to its influence.

4. The strength of the relationships is shown by the desperate and illogical actions of the men.

5.'Gimfastan' is a difficult word, the meaning of which is improperly understood but is usually taken as 'anvil' or something similar. It may be a loan word from Old English, one of several in this poem which suggests it may have been based on an earlier OE poem, related to the word 'gim', meaning 'gemstones' - in which case, the meaning could be something along the lines of 'he beat red gold into brilliance'. The stanza is the first to introduce the concept of Völundr as a great artisan, and it is markedly linked to his sexual frustration.

6. The beautiful imagery of the second half of this stanza is amongst the finest in eddic poetry: it is a celebration of the heroic that is tempered with darkness and shadow, much like the approach of Grendel to Heorot in 'Beowulf'.

7. By the standards of Norse society this is a fantastical amount of wealth that would surpass most kings' treasuries. A Norse 'hundruð' in fact denotes 120, meaning there are actually 840 gold arm-rings.

8. Völundr's obsessive nature is going to be made clear by the fact that he will miss the one arm-ring, a trait that is more than slightly suggestive of the Germanic image of the dragon, who notices and punishes even the slightest theft from his hoard.

9. There is presumably some significance, perhaps an echo of a ritual, to the consumption of she-bear meat, but it is sadly lost. Germanic shamanism, however, is clear on the idea that the consumption of an animal allows one to absorb its essence.

10. Völundr obsesses over his wife as well as his gold: it suggests that his production of the arm-rings has all along been a ploy to tempt her back to him. The word 'ljóði' is a loan word from OE, and appears nowhere else in ON; in OE it means 'citizen', but in ON it is likely to have a more aristocratic sense. It also suggests that Völundr, is an elf - an obscure group of supernatural creatures.

11. Völundr is taken without injury and by stealth, which is important.

12. Note the irony in the use of bast rope, which earlier held Völundr's gold.

13. Níðuðr is laying claim to the gold by implying that Völundr has stolen it from him: it is unlikely that this is meant to be true, but there is no extant story for where Völundr came by so much gold so one cannot discount the possibility that there might have been an earlier back-story.

14. The horse Grani plays a role in the myth of the cursed Rhine-gold that forms the basis of the Volsung cycle of myths. It's reference here could imply that the treasure horde is indeed the fabled gold of the Rhine, the location of which is thought to be lost at the end of Volsung cycle; more likely, however, is that this is simply a poetic term for any kind of gold. Níðuðr is now implicitly accusing Völundr of theft, a very serious crime in ON society.

15. The poem, which exists in only one manuscript, is in rather bad shape, and this is one of the most obvious instances of the damage it has received - the stanza makes no sense here, nor is it apparent who is speaking it.

16. Again, there is no way to know who is speaking; a stanza has probably been lost. It must either be Böðvildr, or else her mother the queen: it is more likely the latter, as both the comment and the sense of ownership displayed by walking through the hall agree with the queen's later cruelty.

17. The idea of Völundr being hamstrung occurs in every version of the myth - a painful form of torture that renders Völundr immobile, but importantly still able to manufacture items for Níðuðr, from the smithy by the sea-side. The medieval editor, in the prose section following this stanza, evidently assumes that the 'sea-side' smithy is in fact a proper noun.

18. Völundr's obsession with material wealth is still his driving passion. The belief that the arm-rings are meant for his wife, and that Böðvildr has in some sense come to occupy her position, foreshadow his eventual rape of her.

19. We've already been told that no one apart from the king is brave enough to travel to the smithy: Völundr is a dangerous man, even with his injury. Things do not look good for these two innocent boys.

20. Völundr's original plan of tempting his wife home by the manufacture of treasure now works in a more sinister way.

21. There is a sinister sing-song quality to the first two lines - we are meant to find Völundr's behaviour profoundly creepy.

22. It works.

23. Völundr's vivisection of the bodies is meant to be grotesque. The amputation of their legs seems to be a reference to his own injury; that he covers their skulls ('bowls under the hair') with silver is the main cause of the mistaken 19th century belief that Vikings drunk out of the skulls of the their enemies.

24. Several myths reference the processing of dead bodies into other items, but here it is done with gory relish: Völundr's skill is inferred by his ability to make gems out of body parts, particularly the eyes. There is some nebulous erotic sentiment associated with breast-brooches, given that their removal would cause a woman's entire clothing to fall off her: it is another hint of the strange and violent relationship she comes to have with Völundr. Both of these items also recall the focus on eyes and teeth in the queen's earlier taunt to Völundr.

25. A strange jump, probably indicating missing stanzas. Böðvildr's arm-ring has somehow broken and needs repairing, and it would appear that she already has a trusting relationship with Völundr.

26. Once again, Völundr is manipulating her into being at ease and pliable.

27. It is heavily implied the Völundr has raped Böðvildr, an act confirmed by her later pregnancy - he has made her his 'wife', just as her taking of the arm-ring foreshadowed. His comment is chilling, as it suggests that he is by no means done taking vengeance.

28. All versions of the myth describe Völundr creating for himself a pair of wings by which to overcome his disability, a story element so universally recognised that the present poet hasn't even felt it necessary to describe it. Böðvildr's misery suggests that she does indeed have some romantic feeling for him.

29. Völundr is beginning to take on some of the attributes of his missing wife, particularly the bird-like behaviour of flying and sitting on walls. There is a sense that he has become a sort of pseudo-valkyrie: it is he who hovers above, choosing who lives and who dies.

30. The lines about cold heads and cold counsels are clearly proverbial in nature, and do not translate well - they indicate that malign advice can really get under the skin.

31. It is, of course, going to be bad news - the king expects this, but there is a strong thematic idea in Germanic literature that reality is only confirmed once it is discussed.

32. Völundr is making it clear that he considers Böðvildr his wife now, and that of course by ensuring her safety he adds to the torment he inflicts on Níðuðr by making her a constant reminder of his defeat. Given that Völundr has killed the male line, if his child by Böðvildr is male it will inherit the kingdom - in other versions of the myth, it is indeed a male child who grows up to be the great hero Widia.

33. An evocatively violent image.

34. Völundr is clearly relishing the graphic descriptions of brutality, now that he is beyond their reach.

35. Once again, there is an air of a betrothal promise surrounding the brooch - Völundr is declaring himself to be Níðuðr's son-in-law in a quasi-legalistic sense.

36. Grammatically, it could Völundr who is on horse-back - but given his mechanical wings, it would be an odd declaration.

37. Völundr makes his escape, having wrought all the vengeance he can; there is a dramatic comparison between the free and liberated elf, and the static and upset king.

38. The name of the slave is made up of several archaic components, another thing that suggests an early date for the poem. The human drama being carried out is still recognizable in modern day society: a girl is 'in the family way' and is being summoned to see her father.

39. Níðuðr is speaking with coy euphemism - this is clearly an uncomfortable topic for him.

40. Again, a similar excuse a modern father might hear from his unexpectedly pregnant teenage daughter: it was only once, it was a mistake, and I couldn't stop it. Even so, this isn't meant comically - there is a certain pathetic pathos to the closing lines.

[Poetaster]

I enjoyed this. :) Another great translation!